← Octo-TIGER / All test problemsStationary flux-limited diffusion

Equilibrium sphere

A prescribed Gaussian emitter drives FLD in a stationary scattering medium, compared with its analytic steady linear-diffusion equilibrium.

FLD method scope. Grey radiation at physical light speed on CPU, backward-Euler diffusion/material exchange, and the Levermore–Pomraning limiter. Moving cases include first-order gas transport, radiation force/work, and a derived lab-frame flux with radiation enthalpy advection. Where supplied, analytic diffusion-limit references omit nonlinear-limiter and boundary-model effects. Thin streaming cases have no supplied analytic spatial FLD profile and use exact energy integrals instead. Paired M1 RK1 and FLD timings use different stability limits and do not establish performance at matched error.

The experiment

Physical setup

The source is q(r) = ℒ exp(−r²/w²)/(π3/2w³), with constant positive Rosseland extinction χ and zero Planck absorption. The material stays fixed and receives no recoil or heating. The source deposits its exact cell-integrated radiation energy during each accepted timestep.

The initial radiation energy is a cell average of the steady linear-diffusion equilibrium. On the finite cube, each boundary uses Dirichlet energy sampled from the same equilibrium, averaged over the boundary face by four-point Gauss–Legendre quadrature in each tangential direction. FLD derives its own initial and evolved flux from its nonlinear limiter; no independent flux is prescribed. The recorded parameters give the source luminosity, width, background, and opacity.

The standard runner uses a uniform cubic grid with hydrodynamics and gravity disabled. Its CGS box spans −3 × 10¹⁰ to +3 × 10¹⁰ cm on each axis, with c = 2.99792458 × 10¹⁰ cm/s and default final time 4 s. Opt-in adaptive runs are identified below; N = INX × 2level then describes their configured finest equivalent resolution. Each completed run below lists its recorded parameters.

The comparison

Comparison and interpretation

Analytic diffusion-limit reference; not an exact solution of nonlinear FLD. For D₀ = c/(3χ), the stationary equations ∇·Fref = q and Fref = −D₀∇Eref give

Eref(r) = Ebg + [3χℒ/(4πc)] erf(r/w)/r
Fref(x) = [ℒ/(4πr³)] [erf(s) − 2s exp(−s²)/√π] x,   s = r/w

The expressions have finite limits at the origin, with zero flux there. Initial and comparison cell averages use four-point Gauss–Legendre quadrature on each axis. The reference is time independent and solves the linear diffusion problem with the prescribed source and boundary energy.

Nonlinear FLD uses λ(R) rather than 1/3, so finite-gradient limiter effects can move the numerical state away from this linear equilibrium. The reference flux is −D₀∇Eref, not the nonlinear limiter applied to Eref. Reported slice differences include that model mismatch, spatial and temporal error, boundary discretization, and quadrature error.

What this test measures

Inspect equilibrium drift, radial symmetry, positivity, the derived flux bound, and the energy budget. The finite cube intercepts only a fraction of the Gaussian's all-space luminosity ℒ: the integrated source is ℒ[erf(L/(2w))]³. The change in stored energy plus outward boundary transport must match this in-domain injection. The imposed equilibrium boundary can exchange energy with the domain; it is not a vacuum boundary. Slice differences do not imply an exact nonlinear-FLD convergence order.

Measured results

All resolutions

LevelGridBatch status
232³Ready

Analytic diffusion-limit reference comparison. The reference is exact for its stated linear diffusion equations, not for the nonlinear FLD limiter. Flux remains a derived diagnostic; no separate M1 momentum conservation test applies.

FLD backward Euler · 32³ cells

Central cell layer at z=dx/2; ray at y=z=dx/2.

FLD backward Euler with the Levermore-Pomraning limiter; stationary material and physical c = 29979245800 cm/s. Radiation flux is derived from the radiation-energy gradient; it is a diagnostic, not an evolved momentum variable. Analytic references describe the linear diffusion limit and need not solve nonlinear flux-limited diffusion exactly. M1 versus FLD differences compare distinct radiation models and are not analytic-reference errors.

Recorded setup and run provenance
OriginOcto-TIGER application
DomainCube of side 6.000000e+10 cm; centered at the origin
Resolution32³ cells; finest Δx = 1.875000e+09 cm
Final comparison time2.000000e-01 s
Radiation modelFLD
Radiation integrationFLD backward Euler (first order in time)
Flux semanticsDerived FLD flux: F = -D grad E
Analytic referencesteady-gaussian-emitter; linear diffusion-limit reference, not exact for the nonlinear FLD limiter
Reference norm scopeArea-weighted projected positive-side slice; no full-volume norm or convergence order inferred
Radiation backendcpu
Physical light speed2.997925e+10 cm/s
Reduced-speed factor α1.000000e+00
Radiation transport speed2.997925e+10 cm/s
Periodic boundariesoff
Hydrodynamicsoff
Gravityoff
Implicit radiation sourceon
Uniform gridon
CFL0.4
Timestep cap0.001 s
Output interval0.0016666666666666668 s
Background energy density1 erg/cm³
Scattering coefficient χ1.6666666666666666e-10 cm⁻¹
Gaussian width w6000000000 cm
All-space luminosity ℒ2.6981321220000001e+29 erg/s
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    ],
    "substeps": 200
  },
  "inx": 8,
  "length": 60000000000.0,
  "level": 2,
  "movie_capture": {
    "hard_dt": 0.001,
    "odt": 0.0016666666666666668,
    "requested_snapshots": 121,
    "steps_per_output_check": 1
  },
  "origin": "Octo-TIGER application",
  "physical_c": 29979245800.0,
  "radiation_algorithm_version": 1,
  "radiation_backend": "cpu",
  "radiation_equations": "stationary physical-c FLD",
  "radiation_flux_semantics": "derived_fld_flux",
  "radiation_integrator": "backward_euler",
  "radiation_limiter": "levermore_pomraning",
  "radiation_model": "fld",
  "radiation_reduced_c_factor": 1.0,
  "reference_exact_for_solver": false,
  "reference_kind": "linear-diffusion-limit",
  "reference_model": "steady-gaussian-emitter",
  "reference_sampling": "cell averages",
  "status": "complete",
  "time": 0.2,
  "transport_c": 29979245800.0,
  "units": {
    "chi": "1/cm",
    "energy_density": "erg/cm^3",
    "flux": "erg/(cm^2 s)",
    "length": "cm",
    "luminosity": "erg/s",
    "mass": "g",
    "source": "erg/(cm^3 s)",
    "system": "CGS",
    "time": "s"
  },
  "validation_scope": "Analytic steady constant-D Gaussian-emitter reference. Nonlinear FLD limiter, boundary sampling and discretization can cause equilibrium drift; these are slice discrepancies, not exact nonlinear-FLD error norms."
}
FLD radiation energy, analytic diffusion-limit reference, and signed difference. Central cell layer at z=dx/2; ray at y=z=dx/2.
FLD radiation energy, analytic diffusion-limit reference, and signed difference. Central cell layer at z=dx/2; ray at y=z=dx/2. · PDF
Radiation energy and derived FLD flux against analytic diffusion-limit profiles, with signed differences. The reference does not include the nonlinear flux limiter.
Radiation energy and derived FLD flux against analytic diffusion-limit profiles, with signed differences. The reference does not include the nonlinear flux limiter. · PDF
Derived FLD flux maps
Derived FLD fx: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference.
Derived FLD fx: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference. · PDF
Derived FLD fy: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference.
Derived FLD fy: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference. · PDF
Derived FLD fz: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference.
Derived FLD fz: numerical flux, analytic diffusion-reference flux, and signed difference. · PDF

Accepted implicit solves

Accepted steps: 200; substeps: 200; timestep retries: 0; maximum nonlinear residual: 1.250134e-15; maximum absolute coupled energy error per accepted step: 5.263206e+15.

Projected-slice differences from the analytic reference

Area-weighted L1, L2, and maximum differences on the exported positive-side slice; these are not full-volume norms or a pure discretization error. No convergence order is inferred. Energy-density and flux units are those recorded in the slice-units download.

FieldL1 differenceL2 differenceMaximum difference
er1.541166e-055.045256e-054.264541e-04
fx4.691296e+059.879944e+055.123159e+06
fy4.691296e+059.879944e+055.123159e+06
fz1.325364e+053.701645e+052.113611e+06

Radiation energy conservation

All values below are dimensionless fractions of the fixed normalization scale at t_ref = 0 s.

FieldScaleQ(t_ref)/scaleQ(t)/scaleBoundary B/scaleSource S/scaleResidual R/scaleMaximum |R|/scale
er|Q(t_ref)|1.000000e+009.999982e-012.481570e-042.463735e-04-7.429547e-167.554444e-16
Radiation energy after signed boundary transport, material exchange, and any prescribed source. Flux moments are not conserved variables in FLD.
Radiation energy after signed boundary transport, material exchange, and any prescribed source. Flux moments are not conserved variables in FLD. · PDF

Saved-state movie

Equilibrium Sphere · L2 · FLD backward Euler

121 stored states; 121 shown. Physical time: 0–0.2 s. Playback: 60 s.

Zero-order hold; no solution interpolation. Playback holds each saved numerical state over its time interval and includes endpoint holds.

All 121 snapshot times

Snapshot times: 0, 0.002, 0.004, 0.005, 0.007, 0.009, 0.01, 0.012, 0.014, 0.015, 0.017, 0.019, 0.02, 0.022, 0.024, 0.025, 0.027, 0.029, 0.03, 0.032, 0.034, 0.035, 0.037, 0.039, 0.04, 0.042, 0.044, 0.045, 0.047, 0.049, 0.05, 0.052, 0.054, 0.055, 0.057, 0.059, 0.06, 0.062, 0.064, 0.065, 0.067, 0.069, 0.07, 0.072, 0.074, 0.075, 0.077, 0.079, 0.08, 0.082, 0.084, 0.085, 0.087, 0.089, 0.09, 0.092, 0.094, 0.095, 0.097, 0.099, 0.1, 0.102, 0.104, 0.105, 0.107, 0.109, 0.11, 0.112, 0.114, 0.115, 0.117, 0.119, 0.12, 0.122, 0.124, 0.125, 0.127, 0.129, 0.13, 0.132, 0.134, 0.135, 0.137, 0.139, 0.14, 0.142, 0.144, 0.145, 0.147, 0.149, 0.15, 0.152, 0.154, 0.155, 0.157, 0.159, 0.16, 0.162, 0.164, 0.165, 0.167, 0.169, 0.17, 0.172, 0.174, 0.175, 0.177, 0.179, 0.18, 0.182, 0.184, 0.185, 0.187, 0.189, 0.19, 0.192, 0.194, 0.195, 0.197, 0.199, 0.2 s.

Arrows show derived FLD diagnostic flux -D grad(E); radiation momentum is not evolved. Arrows have equal length and show direction only.

Final-time profiles compare FLD with a linear diffusion-limit analytic reference, not an exact solution of nonlinear flux-limited diffusion. The movie shows numerical states only.

Central z=0+ radiation energy slice with faint cell mesh and equal-length flux direction arrows. Arrows show derived FLD diagnostic flux -D grad(E); radiation momentum is not evolved. Fixed color limits; actual stored Silo times held without solution interpolation. Final-time profiles compare FLD with a linear diffusion-limit analytic reference, not an exact solution of nonlinear flux-limited diffusion. The movie shows numerical states only. The maps show the full simulation domain without cropping.

Download MP4 · Rendering and timing metadata · Full run report

All campaign movies

Data and reproducibility

Momentum plots are omitted for this fixed-material problem. The prescribed medium acts as an external momentum reservoir, so radiation momentum exchange does not imply that a compensating gas momentum was evolved.

Reading FLD diagnostics

Gaussian, sphere, and Marshak profiles include analytic linear diffusion-limit references; Marshak also includes material energy. Those references omit the nonlinear limiter, and Marshak assumes a semi-infinite domain. Slice discrepancies combine these model differences with discretization and reference-evaluation errors. Thin positive-opacity wave/front cases instead have numerical-only profiles and exact periodic energy-integral checks. Numerical flux is derived as F = −D∇E and satisfies |F| ≤ cE; it is not an evolved M1 momentum variable.

The radiation energy ledger checks R = E(t) − E(t_ref) + B − S, with outward boundary energy B and radiation sources S, including material exchange and any prescribed emitter. Its fixed normalization is initial radiation energy, or bath energy times domain volume for cold Marshak heating. Coupled gas-plus-radiation errors per accepted implicit step are recorded separately in the solver diagnostics.

Nonlinear residuals, substeps, and retries are measured solver diagnostics. The short pilot checks the implementation and reporting pipeline; comparison of models is distinct from an accuracy benchmark or speedup at matched error.

Sources & provenance

Where this problem comes from

The analytic Gaussian-emitter solution, its volume quadrature, and its exact source cell integral are implemented by equilibriumSphere, sphereAverage, and bulbSourceAverage in octotiger/test_problems/radiation/profiles.hpp. The construction follows by integrating the enclosed spherical source luminosity and then the linear diffusion gradient.

Levermore & Pomraning (1981), “A flux-limited diffusion theory,” ApJ 248, 321–334, derives flux-limited diffusion and its classical diffusion limit. Saved reference metadata records whether an analytic profile is supplied and distinguishes its equations from the nonlinear limiter evolved by this solver.

Radiation method context

M1 RK1 evolves radiation energy and flux moments with the retained first-order radiation update. FLD uses backward-Euler radiation diffusion/material exchange with the Levermore–Pomraning limiter. Moving cases add first-order conservative gas transport and radiation force/work; their reconstructed lab-frame flux includes (E I+P) v as well as −D∇E. The scalar implicit transport solve uses composite-grid multigrid and an iterative linear solver. Both time integrators are first order.

The suite includes Gaussian scattering, Marshak heating, a Gaussian emitter, explicit thin positive-opacity wave/front comparisons, and moving-gas shock/blast problems on CPU at physical light speed. A configured case does not establish that a solve converged; only validated completed runs appear as results. Flux diagnostics in FLD have no separate M1 momentum conservation test. A difference between paired M1 and FLD solutions is a model comparison, not an analytic error. ADER2 has been removed from the current solver; historical result files retain their original provenance.

Skinner & Ostriker (2013) and Hanawa & Audit (2014) provide context for the M1 equations. The implementation and saved executable/source hashes identify the actual numerical methods used in this batch.

Reproducing this batch

Descriptions document the reviewed source implementation. Older or edited solver versions can use different profile constants or averaging rules; these are not all encoded in run.ini. Use the run metadata, executable hash, and saved batch source hashes to identify the implementation behind a result. A source path or descriptive formula alone is not proof of the executable's contents.